Genghis Khan-Mongol Ruler

Alternative names: Jinghis Khan, Jenghiz Khan, Ching-gis Khan, Chinggiss Khan, Temüjin, Temuchin.

 

One of history's most famous conquerors, Genghis Khan, also known as Chinggis, Chingis, Jenghiz, or Jinghis, was a Mongolian warrior-ruler who was born in 1162 near Lake Baikal and died on August 18, 1227. He united the tribes of Mongolia into one nation and then expanded his empire across Asia to the Adriatic Sea. Genghis Khan was a brilliant warrior and king who united all the Mongolian nomadic tribes under his and his family's control in a strict military state after beginning his rule in obscurity and insignificance. A series of campaigns of pillage and conquest that eventually took the Mongol armies as far as the Adriatic Sea in one direction and the Pacific coast of China in the other led to the establishment of the great Mongol Empire. He then turned his attention to the settled peoples outside the boundaries of his nomadic realm. 

 

Only non-Mongol sources, with the exception of the saga-like Secret History of the Mongols (1240?), have information that is close to contemporaneous with Genghis Khan's life. Nearly all authors, including those who served the Mongols, have focused on the immense destruction brought on by their invasions. One Arab historian frankly said that the thought of them horrified him. They were described as a "detestable nation of Satan that flowed out like devils from Tartarus so that they are rightfully named Tartars" by the 13th-century chronicler Matthew Paris, who was outside the reach of the Mongols and relied on second-hand information. 

 

His use of the classical word Tartarus (Hell) and the ancient tribal name Tatar, which some of the nomads still go by, was a play on words, but his description captures the fear that the Mongols inspired. Even though his generals frequently worked independently, without direct command, Genghis Khan must share the reputation of his people as the creator of the Mongol nation, the architect of the Mongol army, and the brains behind their campaigns. It would be incorrect to interpret the Mongol campaigns as haphazard incursions by bands of roving barbarians. It's also untrue, contrary to what some have assumed, that these efforts were somehow prompted by Inner Asia's progressive desiccation, which forced the nomads to seek out new pastures. 

 

Again, the Mongol invasions were not a singular occurrence. Genghis Khan was neither the first nor the last nomadic conqueror to wreak havoc on the populated edges of Eurasia after emerging from the steppe. Simply put, compared to other leaders, his campaigns were more extensive, effective, and successful. They affected a larger portion of the Eurasian continent and a wide range of various societies, and they had a more violent impact on those sedentary peoples who had the habit of writing down occurrences. Even though they had completely different ways of life, two societies that were constantly in contact and antagonistic toward one another were yet interdependent. 

 

The southern staple goods were necessities for the nomads, who also wanted its luxuries. These might be acquired by trade, by taxing nomadic caravans, or through armed raids. The settled populations of China had a reduced need for the products of the steppe, but they could not ignore the existence of the nomadic barbarians and were always engaged with finding ways to fend against incursion. A powerful dynasty, like the Manchu in the 17th century, could immediately exercise military dominance over all of Inner Asia. The cycle of dynastic strength and weakness in China was accompanied by another cycle, that of unity and fragmentation among the steppe peoples. At other times, the Chinese would have to play off one group of barbarians against another, shifting their support and juggling their alliances to prevent any one tribe from becoming too strong. 

 

When at its strongest, a nomadic tribe might impose its will on neighboring tribes and, if China was in a vulnerable position, could even expand its influence far beyond the steppe. This expansion of nomadic dominance over the incompatible, sedentary culture of the south ultimately brought its own nemesis. The nomads were absorbed by the Chinese they had conquered and lost their traditional base of superiority—that rapid mobility that required little in the way of supplies and fodder. The cycle would then restart, a strong China would return, and chaos and small-scale fighting among transient chieftains would become the new way of life for nomads. Genghis Khan's life must be assessed in light of these political contrasts and tensions, which are well illustrated by the history of the Mongol conquests. His campaigns were the result of a combination of circumstances that were exploited by a soldier of ambition, tenacity, and genius rather than an unforeseen natural disaster or even a divine calamity. He took advantage of the fact that his tribal world was poised for unification at a time when China and other settled states were, for one reason or another, concurrently in decline. 

 

For the birth of Genghis Khan, also known as Temüjin (or Temuchin)—named after a ruler who was vanquished by his father, Yesügei, at the time Temüjin was born—various dates are recorded. Temüjin's early life's chronology is unknown. He could have been born in 1155, 1162 (which is the preferred year in Mongolia today), or 1167. His birth was considered lucky because he was born with a blood clot in his hand, according to mythology. Additionally, he is supposed to have been of divine descent, with a grey wolf as his first ancestor who was "born with a destiny from heaven on high." 

 

His early years, however, were everything but optimistic. When he was nine years old, Yesügei, a member of the royal Borjigin clan of the Mongols, was poisoned by a group of Tatars, another nomadic people, as part of an ongoing feud. After Yesügei's death, the rest of the clan, led by the rival Taychiut family, abandoned his widow, Höelün, and her children, believing them to be too weak to lead, and taking advantage of the opportunity to The tiny family suffered from severe poverty for a while, subsisting on roots and fish rather than the typical nomad diet of mutton and mare's milk. 

 

Two stories demonstrate Temüjin's precarious situation and, more importantly, the ability he already possessed to win over people simply by being himself. He was once captured by the Taychiut, who kept him around their camps wearing a wooden collar rather than killing him. Temüjin once noticed that he was being carelessly guarded while they were feasting, so he struck the sentry with his wooden collar and fled. One of the Taychiut, moved by the fire in his eyes, saw him during the Taychiut's all-night hunt for him but chose not to report him and instead risked his own life to assist him in escaping. 

 

On another occasion, horse thieves struck and fled with eight of the little family's nine horses. Temüjin went after them. On the way, he stopped to inquire about the horses with a young stranger named Bo'orchu. Bo'orchu instantly stopped milking, gave Temüjin a new mount, and they headed off to assist find the missing animals. While he declined any compensation, he willingly abandoned his own family and irreversibly committed himself to Temüjin as a nökör (free companion), acknowledging his power. Despite being rejected by the royal Borjigin clan, Temüjin and his family still appear to enjoy a significant amount of prestige as members of it. He was able to claim several things, including the wife that Yesügei had promised to him moments before he passed away. 

 

However, the Merkit tribe of northern Mongolians harboured ill will toward Temüjin since Yesügei had taken Höelün, his own wife, from one of their men, and in retaliation they had ravished Börte, Temüjin's wife. Temüjin felt confident enough to ask Toghril, khan of the Kereit clan and the most powerful Mongol ruler at the time—with whom Yesügei had an anda, or sworn brother—for assistance in finding Börte. In order to renew their friendship, he gave Toghril a sable skin that he too had gotten as a wedding gift. In exchange, Toghril pledged to bring Temüjin's scattered people together, and it is reported that he kept his word by providing 20,000 soldiers and convincing Jamuka, a childhood friend of Temüjin, to provide an army as well. 

 

He appears to have had nothing else to offer. It is difficult to explain the disparity between Temüjin's poverty and the massive army provided by his supporters, and there is no other authority than the narrative of the Secret History. 

 

Temüjin defeated the Merkit with the aid of strong friends and his own army, using a tactic he often used to snuff out potential future uprisings. Years later, before approaching China, he would first make sure that no nomad commander survived to stab him in the back. He endeavored never to leave an adversary in his rear. He treated the Jürkin clan's nobility similarly not long after the Merkit was destroyed. These princes, who claimed to be his supporters, had taken advantage of his absence to raid the Tatars and steal his belongings. Temüjin eliminated the clan nobility and adopted the populace as his own army and labor force. 

 

He first overcame the tough Tatars in combat before killing everyone taller than a cart axle when his power had increased enough for him to chance a final clash with them. It is conceivable that the kids may grow up with no knowledge of their true identities and will become devoted Mongols. Temüjin divided the Kereit people among the Mongols as servants and troops when the Kereit alliance with Toghril finally fell apart and he had to remove this hindrance to absolute rule. This brutality went beyond simple wanton cruelty. Temüjin wanted to ensure that none of the old, rival aristocrats who might serve as a focal point of resistance were still alive. 

 

He also wanted to arm himself with a fighting force and, most importantly, break down any sense of clan loyalty that might have encouraged fragmentation by bringing all the nomads together in personal obedience to his family. He was also ordered to allocate thousands of families to the care of his own family and friends in 1206, after being recognized as the emperor of all the steppe people. This replaced the previous pattern of tribes and clans with a system more akin to a feudal one.

 

Temüjin was striving for himself to rule the steppes at least since the Merkits were defeated. Jamuka and he only rekindled friendship for about a year and a half. Then, one day as the two friends were marching, Jamuka made a mysterious comment regarding the campsite selection, which caused Temüjin's wife Börte to tell him that it was time for the two friends to part ways. It's hard to see what caused this occurrence. The Secret History's narrative is too cryptic in its conciseness and its allusive language to allow for a trustworthy interpretation. 

 

According to others, Jamuka was attempting to incite a leadership crisis. The phrase might also be purposefully cryptic to hide the fact that Temüjin was ready to desert his companion. In any case, Temüjin followed Börte's suggestion. Many of Jamuka's own soldiers also deserted him, perhaps because they believed Temüjin was the one who would ultimately prevail. In epic terms, The Secret History justifies their deed. One of the men informs Temüjin of a vision he had, which he interprets to mean that Heaven and Earth have concurred that Temüjin should rule the empire. By taking a more practical approach to the situation, it is possible to see how the shifting loyalties of the steppe interact. Knowing what was going on, several of the clansmen hurried to join Temüjin's side because they believed that a strong leader was about to emerge and that it would be wise to announce their support for him at the outset.

 

The split from Jamuka created divisions throughout the Mongol world that could only be healed by the death of one or both of the adversaries. There is no historical defender of Jamuka. The Secret History has a lot to say about him—though not necessarily in an unkind way—but it is primarily the story of Temüjin's family, and Jamuka frequently acts as the enemy, albeit reluctantly. He is a mystery, a guy with enough personality strength to head a rival alliance of princes and win their support for his election as gur-khn, or supreme khan. He was nonetheless a cunning man who preferred to look at things in the short term and was willing to abandon or even betray his friends in order to make a fast buck. 

 

Without Temüjin, Jamuka might have been able to defeat the Mongols, but Temüjin was unquestionably the superior man, and the rivalry destroyed Jamuka. A few years before the turn of the century, clan chiefs started to unite around Temüjin and Jamuka, and some of them even suggested that Temüjin become the new Khan of the Mongols. The conditions they offered him show that what they were searching for was a trustworthy general, not the overlord he was to become. They promised him fidelity in battle and in pursuit. In fact, some of them would turn on him later. 

 

The next significant incident in the Secret History, a fight at a feast that was started by Temüjin's purported allies, the Jürkin princes, whom he later killed, demonstrates that even at this time, Temüjin was merely a small chieftain. In northern China, the Jin emperor also regarded him as being of little importance. The Jin fought their former allies, the Tatars, in one of the policy reversals typical of their control over the nomads. Temüjin and Toghril grabbed the chance to rekindle their family enmity and defeated the Tatars from behind. Toghril was given the Chinese title of wang, or prince, by the Jin emperor, whereas Temüjin received one that was even less honorific. 

 

In fact, the Jin had little to worry from Temüjin for the ensuing few years. He didn't appear to be a threat to China because he was entirely focused on expanding his dominance in the steppe. Temüjin then began the methodical eradication of all enemies. Jamuka's successive coalitions were overthrown. They wiped out the Tatars. Toghril allowed himself to be influenced by Jamuka's schemes, as well as by his own son's aspirations and suspicions, leading to the destruction of both he and his Kereit people. Finally, in the west, the Naiman monarch attempted to establish yet another coalition with Jamuka's help out of fear of the Mongols' growing might but was soundly defeated and lost his realm. Jamuka, as erratic as always, abruptly left the Naiman khan. Temüjin became the ruler of the steppes as a result of these campaigns that took place in the few years prior to 1206. Temüjin was crowned Genghis Khan that year at a large assembly held near the River Onon; the title likely meant Universal Ruler. 

 

The year 1206, when the Mongols were finally prepared to venture beyond the steppe, was a turning point in both their own history and the history of the entire world. Even Mongolia itself changed. The small-scale raids and tribal disputes were history. The traditional clan and tribe structure had either been destroyed or the recognizable tribe and clan names had stopped being used, as evidenced by the fact that names bearing them could still be found scattered throughout the Mongol globe. Genghis Khan personally created the unified Mongol country, which has endured through numerous vicissitudes (feudal fragmentation, impending retribalization, colonial occupation) to this day. 

 

The goals of the Mongols extended beyond the steppe. Genghis Khan was prepared to go on his grand mission to conquer the entire globe. The new country was set up primarily for war. The soldiers of Genghis Khan were well-equipped, well-supplied, and strictly disciplined. They were also divided up according to the decimal system. Genghis Khan had full loyalty from his generals, who were either his own sons or soldiers he had hand-picked. Genghis Khan was a military genius who could adjust to swiftly changing conditions. At first, all of his soldiers were mounted horsemen riding the tough, grass-fed Mongol pony that required no feed. Other nomads could be vanquished with such an army, but towns could not be seized. 

 

However, it wasn't long before the Mongols were able to start laying siege to major cities, employing various weapons and tactics like mangonels, catapults, ladders, burning oil, and even diverting rivers. Genghis Khan only gradually understood that there were more sophisticated ways to wield power than only raiding, destroying, and robbing through contact with men from the more developed realms. He was taught the benefits of reading and assisted in the conversion of the Mongol language to writing by a minister of the Naiman Khan, the last significant Mongol tribe to oppose Genghis Khan. 

 

Genghis Khan learned from Muslim advisors the "meaning and importance of towns" only after the war against the Muslim empire of Khwrezm, in the area of the Amu Darya (Oxus) and Syr Darya (Jaxartes), according to The Secret History. Another adviser, who was formerly in the service of the Jin emperor, also explained to him the uses of peasants and craftsmen as producers of taxable goods. He had planned to use the northern China's farmed areas as horse grazing pasture. The Mongols still had more of their great conquests to make before they became a global force. The main objective was China. 

 

In 1211, Genghis Khan attacked the Jin dynasty in northern China after securing his western flank with a bloody campaign against the Tangut kingdom of Xixia, a Chinese frontier state to the northwest. He allowed himself to be briefly bought off with a significant quantity of loot in 1214, but efforts were resumed and Beijing was captured in 1215. His general Muqali was thereafter in charge of a more organized subjugation of northern China. Genghis Khan was driven to abandon his plans to conquer China in favor of Khwrezm. The Otrar city governor, who murdered a caravan of Muslim traders who were under Genghis Khan's protection, started this battle. 

 

Khwrezm-Shah turned down satisfaction. The time for war with Khwrezm would undoubtedly have arrived sooner or later, but it could no longer be put off. The Mongols developed their reputation for ferocity and terror throughout this conflict. The residents of each city that was stormed were either killed or made to act as advance troops for the Mongols in battles against their own people. As Genghis Khan pursued his unrelenting wrath against the Khwrezm royal family, he ruined irrigation systems and ravaged fields, gardens, and other agricultural areas. In 1223, he ultimately withdrew, and until the final campaign against Xixia in 1226–1227, he did not command his men into battle once more. On August 18, 1227, he perished. 

 

As far as can be inferred from the contradictory evidence, Genghis Khan had a complicated personality. He was extremely physically strong, tenacious, and had an unbreakable will. He was not stubborn and was open to suggestions from others, including his mothers and wife. He was adaptable. He was not petty, but he was deceptive. He understood the significance of loyalty, unlike Jamuka or Toghril. He would treat his enemies unkindly if they betrayed his lords, but he would also take advantage of their betrayal. He was a devout man, propelled by a sense of divine calling, and in times of adversity he would solemnly worship the Mongols' greatest deity, the Eternal Blue Heaven. 

 

His early years bear out so many things. As he leaves his familiar environment and interacts with the strange, developed world beyond the steppe, the picture becomes less harmonious. At first, he was seized by a passion for vengeance and could not see beyond the short-term benefits of murder and rapine. However, he was able to enlist the support of both civilized individuals from the established world and his fellow nomads during the course of his life. Even the elderly Daoist sage Changchun (Qiu Chuji) was moved by his fame and travelled the entire length of Asia to deliver a religious speech. 

 

Above all else, he was adaptive and a man who could learn. His military victories were mostly attributed to organization, discipline, mobility, and ruthlessness of purpose. He frequently used the dread that followed mass killings of conquered populations. Although it was clearly policy to weaken resistance by inciting panic, killing was utilized for its own purpose. His practice of calling cities to surrender and planning the methodical slaughter of anyone who would not submit has been characterized as psychological warfare. An opposing city's garrison and inhabitants would be divided and demoralized by agents sent by the Mongols, especially during the war against Khwrezm, using a combination of threats and promises. 

 

Because of the Mongols' fearsome reputation, captives frequently became paralyzed and permitted themselves to be slaughtered when resistance or escape was not impossible. The Mongols were, in fact, unreliable. Resistance guaranteed devastation, but for tactical considerations, the people of Balkh, which is now in Afghanistan, was massacred despite a swift surrender. Genghis Khan made enormous advancements. He brought all the nomadic tribes together, and he used smaller forces to fight strong empires like Khwrezm and the even more dominant Jin Empire. He didn't tier his people, though. He took great care in selecting his son Gödei as his successor, made sure that his other sons would submit to Gödei, and left him with a fully functional army and state. Genghis Khan had ruled the area from Beijing to the Caspian Sea at the time of his death, and his generals had invaded Russia and Persia. 

 

His succeeding dynasties would increase their control over most of Russia, Persia, and all of China. They accomplished what he failed to accomplish and may have never truly planned, which was to integrate their conquests into a well-run empire. Although Genghis Khan's devastation is still vivid in people's minds, his conquests were only the beginning of the Mongol Empire, the largest continental power of the middle Ages and Modern Era.